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Forensic Geochemistry Of Crude Oil
And Hydrocarbon (HC) Spillage:
Environmental Damage Assessment According
To The "Polluter Pay Principal" 		  Go to
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Geochemical Procedures to Evaluate Chemical Data of Contamination and Pollution in Regard to the Offender: Assessment and Origin of Pollution.
  • High-resolution geochemical analysis derived from exploration geochemistry.


  • Methods and procedures derived from exploration geochemistry; principle:
    Natural, deep deposits are equivalent to man-made contamination sources in the near surface realm.


  • Numerical procedures, e.g. NSA.


  • Systematic search for source of contamination: allocation of the offender


  • Assessment of timing of HC fuel release.


  • Assessment of complex aspects in contamination cases in regard to legal and insurance issues.
 Forensic Geochemistry

Forensic Geochemistry is a relatively new scientific-technical discipline in environmental sciences that evolved from exploration and organic geochemistry (see EGB).

The goal of exploration geochemistry is the reconstruction of the history and genesis of natural deposits at depth, including the processes and mass balances leading to the formation of deposits. In order to accomplish this goal numerous geochemical methods and procedures were developed over the last decades that are now a routine part of exploration for the search and assessment of commercial deposits such as crude oil, natural gas, and coal.

Forensic Geochemistry adopts these procedures and benefits from the knowledge gained from fossil fuel exploration in the attempt to locate and assess made-made contamination plumes in soils and groundwater (GW). These can be considered to be equivalent to natural deposits in regard to search- and assessment criteria. When it comes to the assessment of the nature and origin of contamination, forensic procedures are highly successful in cases of fuel and HC release. As well, these procedures are applicable in cases of chlorinated HC (CHC) spillage (ForGeo CHC). The procedures briefly described and discussed below are based on high-resolution analytical data, state-of-the art numerical data processing (e.g. NSA), and geochemical and geological expertise.

Forensic Geochemistry often continues the search for answers where established, standard (descriptive) procedures in the German DIN or EPA in the U.S. stop or fall short. The goal of Forensic Geochemistry is the reconstruction of the origin of contamination, and the processes involved in contamination dispersion, migration and alteration through time and space. If successful in this approach, the primary parameters are established to locate pollution origin, providing the conditions to identify offenders.

The reconstruction and assessment of pollution sites requires a target-oriented program to questions such as timing of contaminant release, and number and nature of individual contaminant sources. Forensic Geochemistry provides the procedures and know-how to accomplish this goal. In essence, the Forensic Geochemist tries to answer questions of What? Where? From Where? And When?, thus providing a fairway for the identification of offenders.

Therefore, Forensic Geochemistry contributes to the assessment of complex aspects in contamination cases in regard to legal and insurance issues.

Application in Fuel and HC Spillage

The molecular range of chemical compounds encountered in most ordinary spillage situations is very large and partly indicative of the enormous number of compounds found in crude oils. Isomers inclusive, more than 5000 compounds in the molecular range C2-C60 can be identified. The refinery products of crude oils such as heating oil, diesel, gasoline, jet fuel, tar-oils etc. all possess common technical properties such as heating value, octane number, sulfur content etc.; however, on a molecular basis these products still contain a genetic resemblance to their precursor material, the crude oils. It is for this reason that certain methods of exploration geochemistry can be applied to environmental issues concerning questions to origin, nature, alteration and fate of the contamination in question.

Product and Type-Characterization

The refinery products commercially available are, in principal, relatively easy defined by their respective molecular range, because these products originate from boiling point fractionation of crude oils or the respective cracking products. Liquid gas has a molecular range C2-C6, heating fuel and diesel fall into the range C11-C20, and lubricant oils and tar can be tracked over the molecular range > C25.

Figure 1 shows an example of a high-resolution GC (Gas Chromatogram)-trace of heating oil with a molecular range in the C10-C20 range.

Figure 1
Figure 1: GC (Gas-Chromatogram) of a heating oil in the molecular range C10+

More difficult – and only partially assessed in standard procedures – is the chemical characterization of different products within the same group of products. High and low octane fuels are practically identical in their bulk composition; however, these products can be differentiated by using high-resolution compound analysis and selective, diagnostic compounds or compound ratios (e.g. Benzene/n-Hexane). Figure 2 is an example of low and high octane fuels separated in a star diagram using selected parameters. This star diagram is based on the high-resolution of C2-C8 compounds of gasoline, with more than 60 compounds identified and quantified.

Figure 2
Figure 2

Product identification of fuel contaminations is achieved both from bulk components, such as those shown in Figure 1, and trace analysis. Forensic Geochemistry is in particular useful here, based on the knowledge gained in trace analysis as a routine tool used in exploration geochemistry. Solutions to specific problems are often found when using target-oriented trace analysis.

Biomarkers, Geochemical Fossils, Trace Analysis, Geochemical Fingerprints und Isotope Geochemistry

A characterization of the product or type of HC release into the soil or groundwater system is straight forward as long as the event is recent.

However, fuel release into the environment is seldom recognized as a presently ongoing process; many fuel spills occurred in the (distant) past, sometimes multiple episodes of contamination are involved. These situations are more difficult to resolve, and standard procedures in EPA and DIN etc. do not contribute to solutions for complex contamination cases such as:
  1. Periodic or continuous seepage over longer periods of time.
  2. Spillage originating from multiple sources, either simultaneous or in different time intervals.
  3. Aging HC contamination subjected to secondary alteration.
  4. Presence of fuel contaminants of different sources which appear identical in standard analysis, but can be differentiated by tailored trace analysis.
The solution to these more complex cases is often found in a geochemical program designed specifically for these more complex cases in an attempt to reconstruct contamination processes.

Biomarkers play an important role in exploration geochemistry for the questions of the nature, origin, formation, alteration, and migration of subsurface HC in oil and gas deposits. These biomarkers – sometimes also referred to as Geochemical Fossils – are organic trace components of sediments and crude oils (and their respective refinery products such as heating fuel, diesel, tar, lubricants etc.) which are directly derived from their biological precursors.

A well known example of biomarkers is Cholesterol, a cyclic fatty alcohol common to all animal tissue. As a molecule of the biosphere, Cholesterol can be traced in the geosphere as the cyclo-alkane Cholestane in a variety of several isomers. Figure 3 shows the structure of Cholesterol and the related geo-molecule in form of Cholestane. Cholestane has been isolated from almost all crude oils and many deep, subsurface sediments.

Figure 3
Figure 3


Table 1 provides a list of the prominent geo-derivatives of cholesterol:

Cholesterol Geo-Derivaties
13ß, 17a Diacholestane 20S
13ß, 17a Diacholestane 20R
13ß, 17ß Diacholestane 20S
13ß, 17ß Diacholestane 20R
14a, 17a Cholestane 20S
5a, 14ß, 17ß Cholestane 20S
5a, 14ß, 17ß Cholestane 20S
5a, 14a, 17a Cholestane 20R
Table 1: Geo-species of Cholesterol (C27-fatty-alcohol) in crude oils and their technical products.

The geochemistry of biomarkers is highly complex and the subject is beyond the scope of this concise treatise on Forensic Geochemistry; however, biomarker profiles (fingerprints) of crude oils and HC spillage play a key role in the question for product identity and source correlation.

So far about 200 biomarkers have been isolated from crude oils and sediments. Together with their isomers and rearranged structures these geochemical fossils constitute a group of bio-tracers of large diversity in crude oils and their respective technical products. Biomarker fingerprints are often the key evidence for the question of product identity and product correlation.

Several examples from case studies are shown below to illustrate forensic applications:

The Figures 4a-4c display "Whole Oil GC Traces" of three crude oils that are obviously different in their compositional make-up; the question here was, whether these oils are genetically related. Biomarker fingerprints reveal a common origin of these oils Figures 4a-4c, and geochemical data demonstrate progressive stages of alteration in the oils Figures 4b and 4c (von der Dick et al., 1989).

Figure 4a
Figure 4a

Figure 4b
Figure 4b

Figure 4c
Figure 4c

In contrast to the above case study, the biomarker fingerprint of Figure 5 shows an example of two oils from Venezuela of different genetic origin - due to the different pattern reflecting different source input during the formation of these oils in the deep subsurface. Figure 6 is an analog example from Colorado, U.S.A.; here, four different oil types are identified.

Figure 5
Figure 5

Figure 6
Figure 6

In some cases exotic biomarker input of crude oils allows for the direct and distinct allocation of the crude origin. The spectra of Oleanane and Spiro-Triterpanes as displayed in Figure 7 indicate Nigeria (Niger Delta crude oils) as the place of origin ("place of birth") of this oil.

Figure 7
Figure 7

Forensic-Geochemical profiles from biomarker application are not limited to fuel spillage and contamination plumes, but extent into insurance and fraud cases. International insurance companies trace the "disappearance", re-loading, mixing and "accidents" of cargos in the crude oil transportation sector that is notorious for manipulation and fraud.

CTI/CTE/EnviroGene are cooperating in this application by investigating the use of combined biomarker analysis, Genetic Coding, and advanced numerical procedures (NSA). The goal of this approach is tracking down smart manipulations in crude oil transport.
Geochemical trace analysis is not limited to the so-called biomarkers. The solution to specific problems may require different sets of tracer components. For example, the application of information from C2-C8 light HC profiles in diesel or heating fuel may provide key information for fuel release time and stages of environmental alteration (see below).

Isotope geochemistry in combination with biomarker data may provide the technical basis to differentiate two products that otherwise have identical patterns. Figure 8 shows the n-alkane profiles of two samples, Figure 9 displays a cross-plot of isotope data and relative C19-C20 biomarker magnitudes of these samples; based on Figure 9, the two samples have to be allocated to two different, independent sources, although the alkane-spectra are, in a practical sense, identical as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8
Figure 8

Figure 9
Figure 9

The isotope data of individual compounds shown in Figure 9 are relatively new developments in exploration geochemistry and referred to as "Compound Specific Isotope Analysis" (CSIA) in the literature. Instead of the isotope value of the fuel sample, isotope values of individual compounds in the sample are determined. Thus, isotope values of, e.g., Benzene, Hexane, Cholestane, Phenanthrene etc., or, e.g., Chlorinated HC species (CHC) are determined (ForGeo CHC). This approach requires expensive analytical procedures; however CSIA data may be critically required for legal and insurance related issues.

Alteration: Evaporation, Biodegradation, Water Washing, and "Polymerisation"

Fuel release into the near-surface environment is usually subjected to secondary alteration.
Such alterations include evaporation, biodegradation, water washing, and "polymerization". The extent of such alteration processes varies, and one of several factors controlling alteration is, of course, the physico-chemical properties of individual components. Since crude oils cover a large molecular-structural compound range, the individual effects of the various alteration processes are different, varied, and selective.

Evaporation:
Evaporation is defined as the loss of volatile compounds through evaporative processes. Evaporation is a process strongly controlled by the boiling point of the compound(s) in question. Small molecules are successively more affected than larger ones. The molecular range > C25 is only marginally affected. As is the case for all alteration processes, the rate of evaporation can vary dramatically. Besides the nature of the primary product, the climate, soil-type and soil/GW conditions are controlling the extent of evaporation. Fine grained soils such as clay soils have a high adsorption capacity for oil and fuel, thus the retention times of volatile fuels in these soils are high. In contrast, the dispersion of oil and fuel on the ocean's surface leads to rapid and effective evaporation. Here, 70-90% of a crude oil may be subjected to evaporation into the atmosphere.

Biodegradation:
Fuel and oils are degraded in the presence of molecular oxygen, O2; however the rate of this degradation varies considerably. The (partial) degradation may take place within a few months or several decades. In extreme cases the fuel/oil contamination may be stable over decades.

Progressive biodegradation of HC in the environment requires the transfer of matter: Without continuous O2 and nutrient supply, molecular degradation processes cease quickly or is substantially reduced. The microbial degradation of HC is in high demand for O2. In the lack of molecular dissolved O2, anaerobic conditions may develop. Fuel HC is degraded, too, under these conditions, however, at substantially reduced rates. Nitrate and sulfate sources usually serve as O2-donators in these conditions of reduction-oxidation processes.

The degradation of fossil fuel components is also selective. This observation is the basis for the geochemical reconstruction of the primary product and the assessment of the degradation stage. For example, small aromatic compounds such as Benzene are highly water-soluble, but relatively stable against microbial attack. Polycyclic aromatic HC (PAH) are extremely insoluble and highly resistant to degradation. Their degradation rates are magnitudes lower compared to short-chain alkanes.

In contrast to previous opinion the presence of micro-organisms capable of HC-breakdown is ubiquitous (Schlegel, 1992). These specific organisms prosper exponentially in the presence of HC and under favorable conditions for microbial HC-uptake. Surface geochemical exploration techniques (SGE, BEL) and procedures for remediation (EGB) are based on these observations.

Water Washing:
Water washing is the process of dissolving fuel, oil, or other HC constituents in water and dispersing these dissolved HC's with water flow. Water washing effects seen in HC contamination sites and degraded crude oil fields follow the pattern of water solubility for the individual HC-compounds: Aromatic HC have a higher solubility than their respective cyclo-alkanes. Thus, water washing is also a selective process, often associated with biodegradation as a consequence of active water flow and mass transport.

"Polymerization":
Natural or induced alterations may lead to substantial reductions of HC-contaminations; however, in most cases a solid, tar-like residue is formed from high-molecular, condensed molecules. This residue is solid or semi solid, and highly resistant to further kinds of natural degradation. High-molecular compounds, in particular PAH, and intermediate degradation products undergo further reactions in the presence of molecular O2, forming a cross-linked polymer. Large and macro-molecules are fused to form a solid, insoluble tar-like residue. Eventually, ForGeo SM is required for forensic characterization of these substances. The so-called tar balls encountered along some marine shores are well known for their resistivity and longevity. Figure 15 below provides such an example and will be discussed further below.

Some examples from case studies are used here to illustrate the definitions given above and applications in contamination assessment.

Several figures may serve as examples of applications of geochemical principles for environmental studies:

The Figures 4a-4c discussed above are examples of progressive degradation, starting at the Figure 4a crude oil as the original feedstock. Light HC compounds are degraded first, followed by the medium and high molecular components.

Figure 10 shows the C10+ GC trace of a heating oil contaminated water sample. Within this molecular range of bulk components no obvious signs for degradation are recognized. Based on common and standard procedures this sample had to be classified as "young" or "recent".

Figure 10
Figure 10: GC-spectrum C10+ of a heating oil/water sample in a HC contaminated area.

Figure 11 shows the trace analysis of C2-C8 light HC dissolved in the contaminating heating oil of Figure 10. Figure 12 shows the C2-C8 HC of a reference heating oil sample. The geochemical evaluation of the alteration of the contaminating heating oil is summarized in Figure 13, based on the light HC distribution patterns of the contaminating heating oil in comparison to the reference sample: the contaminating heating oil sample of Figure 10 is in the initial stages of biodegradation and, at the same time, subject to initial water washing. In this case study, progressive biodegradation is sharply reduced because of semi-sterile conditions at the groundwater level and a marked O2-deficiency. A recent contamination – as previously concluded from standard data – is clearly in error in this case.

Figure 11
Figure 11: GC of C2-C8 HC (section) of the heating oil/water sample shown in Figure 10

Figure 12
Figure 12: GC of C2-C8 HC (section) of a reference heating oil sample

Figure 13
Figure 13

In recent years a standard-interpretation has been established based on common, routine evaluations, arguing a "complete" C15+ molecular envelope of a HC contamination to represent recent fuel/oil release, whereas truncated or missing C15+ molecular n-alkanes refer to a release time in the (distant) past. These conclusions may be invalid in the absence of additional, detailed data. The rigorous analysis of environmental conditions may sometimes falsify these standard conclusions.

An example for the environmental control on rates of degradation is illustrated in the gigantic Exxon-Valdez oil spill offshore Alaska in 1989. Areas of porous soils and functioning soil micro-fauna and -flora showed signs of progressive degradation within a few months. Areas that were steam-treated to remove oil residue from soil surfaces showed no signs of degradation because of the sterilization effect from steam treatment.

Figure 14 illustrates an example of progressive degradation in a cross-plot with the x-axis as a numerical value for water washing, and the y-axis displaying biodegradation as a result of Natural Attenuation (NA) in a HC-plume. In general, degradation intensity correlates with distance (m) from the source as revealed from degradation-sensitive C2-C8 light HC data.

Figure 14
Figure 14

Fuel Release Time Estimations
Following the initial description of presence and extent of contamination plumes, the next critical step is the assessment of fuel release time into the environment. In many cases the legal situation and insurance-related conditions require the estimation of the fuel release time in order to follow-up on the "Polluter Pay Principle".

So far no absolutely rigid and solid procedure exists to determine release times with a high degree of precision. A key question in this regard is, to what level of precision the estimate of timing is required. Reasons for the lack of an absolute and precise time scale are varying patterns and rates of degradation, largely controlled by the spilled product and the environment the product is exposed to. In addition, sufficient thorough long-term studies are required to provide calibration data. Such long-term studies will require, in our opinion, interval sampling over two decades or longer.

However, many times relatively precise and accurate estimates on fuel/oil release times are feasible in the presence of suitable data sets:
  1. relevant geochemical data
  2. chemical, biological and physical data of soil and / or groundwater
  3. hydraulic system and groundwater level variations
  4. soil type and soil conditions
  5. nature and extent of HC plume; concentration gradients within plume
  6. microbial soil / water potential to degrade varies HC species
  7. Extended and detailed sampling within and beyond the plume
Besides these data the nature and concentration of fuel additives (e.g. lead-additives in gasoline) may provide indications for fuel release times. These additives were subject to variation and change over the decades; analysis of additives can thus be used for time estimations.

Furthermore, several formulas for release time calculations are in use, based on degradation-sensitive compounds. Kaplan et al. (1996) use BTEX-data (Benzene light HC sequence) in the form:

Rb = (B+T) / (E+X)

to calculate release time. Rb-values between 1.5 and 6.0 indicate a recent release. In case Rb-values fall below a value of 0.5, the residence time of the fuel is about 10 years or older (Kaplan et al., 1996).

nC17/Pristane, two alkanes in fuels, is also used to estimate timing. Christensen and Larsen (1993) developed the following formula with a T- value expressed in years:

T (years) = - (8.4 nC17/Pr) + 19.8

The authors observe a linear trend of T-values over the first 20 years after fuel release.

Although the application of these formulas often appears to be useful for time estimates, the uncontrolled use is not recommended. Extreme cases such as solid HC phases on groundwater or advanced levels of degradation render these calculations useless. In addition, the initial nC17/Pr ratio in various fuel products is subject to some variation. Diesel and heating fuel often show nC17/Pr ratios between 2.1 - 2.5; in fact, when these values are applied in the above formula, a T-value of about zero is calculated.

In summary it can be concluded that detailed geochemical data combined with solid expert data evaluation under the consideration of the specific conditions in the contaminated area allow for a reasonable estimation of fuel release times. The more recent the release date, the more precise are assessments for timing of events, given a sufficient data base. Likewise, a request for time determination within a few months or years for a contamination event 20-30 year ago is unrealistic.

Multiple HC-Contamination Events

Multiple HC release into the enviroment is a special forensic challenge, in particular when it comes to individual source identification coupled with investigations on offenders. Although of increased difficulty useful information can be extracted from detailed geochemical data in order to decipher contamination episodes.

The episodic or continuous input of HC contamination over time becomes apparent in analytical data because of the selective response of individual HC components to degradation. Several examples are used here to demonstrate this:

Figure 15 is an example of a tar occurrence in Newfoundland, Canada, actively fed from seeping HC and, at the same time, continuously subjected to degradation. As a result from evaporation, polymer-like reactions, and oxidation, a high molecular tar residue is formed and left behind as recognized in a progressing "Hump" within the limits of the detectable molecular range.

Figure 15
Figure 15

A similar example is provided in Figure 16: three generations of HC-input are recognized in a New York groundwater sample: high-molecular waste oil (> 20 years), a degraded diesel fuel, and a more recent diesel fuel contamination, the latter showing initial signs of degradation. The most recent contamination is estimated to be less than 5 years old.

Figure 16
Figure 16

Data from high-resolution GC-spectra or mass-spectrometer analysis can be combined with advanced numerical analysis to solve the question of multiple contamination source input. This combination of analytical data with advanced numerical analysis is a powerful tool to identify and quantify individual source contaminations in multiple contaminations. This numerical procedure is explained in more detail in NSA.

In case of the massive Exxon-Valdez oil spill disaster offshore Alaska about 15 years ago forensic-geochemical applications played a major role in the question to separate specific Exxon-Valdez contamination from other HC contaminations along this major oil transportation route. Kvenvolden et al. (1995) provide a classical example of contaminant discrimination based on biomarker fingerprints. Figure 17 shows the biomarker traces obtained from tar residue and tar balls from two contamination sites along the coast. Knight Island tar (Group B) correlates with Exxon-Valdez oil, Stoney Island tar balls (Group A) originate from a local asphalt-producer. Kaplan und Alimi (pers. comm., 1992) also notice numerous individual oil contaminations along the coast of California; here, man-made contamination patterns are superimposed with natural oil spillage along fault lines.

Figure 17
Figure 17

Table 2 contains specific biomarker data from a contamination site with a single HC plume, but formed from two suspected HC sources. Since biomarkers are best suited to separate HC's of different origin, the regular steranes and C30-hopane were carefully recorded in nine samples with the raw biomarker data listed in Table 2. These data of Table 2 were used for NSA input in order to reconstruct HC contamination sources.

# Sample C27 Reg Sterane C28 Reg Sterane C29 Reg Sterane C30 Hopane
#1 18.9 5.6 6.9 30.2
#2 17.1 5.1 8.5 27.1
#3 16.8 4.9 8.6 26.7
#4 16.0 4.7 9.4 25.3
#5 17.7 5.3 8 28.1
#6 15.3 4.4 9.9 24.2
#7 16.3 4.8 9.1 25.8
#8 17.5 5.1 8.0 27.9
#9 18.5 5.5 7.3 29.5
Table 2: measured biomarkers from site samples (ug/mg HC-Extract)

In this case NSA confirmed the suspected two individual HC contamination sources and identified most of the samples as HC's mixed from two sources. NSA reconstructs source-characteristics and quantifies source contributions in individual samples taken at the sampling sites. The source compositions of the two HC contaminations in regard to their biomarker make-up are shown in Figure 18. Table 3 lists the portion of each contamination-type in the nine samples.

Figure 18
Figure 18

Sample Point HC-Source 1 HC-Source 2
#1 95 5
#2 53 47
#3 46 54
#4 22 77
#5 68 31
#6 0 100
#7 32 68
#8 65 35
#9 89 11
Table 3: % portions of HC sources in site samples

Table 3 demonstrates that the sampling locations #1 and #6 are at or very close to the source contamination. All other sampling points form mixtures of the two identified contamination sources 1 and 2 in Table 3.

In case of remediation the involved costs can be shared between the two polluters according to the volume proportion of the source HC in the entire plume area.

Summary and Application Criteria

Forensic Geochemistry offers few cook book recipes to solve complex contamination cases. Usually a problem-oriented program is required for results on pertinent questions such as timing of fuel release, sources of contamination, predicted trends in plume development, individual contributions to co-mingled contaminations etc. Trace analysis and procedures in geochemistry are usually complex; however, this complexity also opens avenues for solutions that are otherwise not available. Thus, a basis for thorough contamination assessment is established. The procedures offered in Forensic Geochemistry are, by the nature of the involvement and associated cost, limited to those cases, where some expectation exists for the "Polluter Pay Principle".

In an ordinary case the application of such procedures will follow a stepwise progress:
  • Conceptual planning
  • Initial results, evaluation and interpretation
  • Results from detailed analysis and cross-check with initial data results
  • Summary evaluation, overall cross-examination, and presentation of results in terms of reconstruction of contamination; multiple "cross-checks" of results obtained from various approaches.
CTI/CTE puts a particular interest in cross-checks of results and interpretations with the goal to generate "hard" facts for the assessment of potential offenders in environmental pollution.

Evidence for insurance or legal purposes is not limited to either DIN (Germany) or EPA (USA) procedures. As a general rule the following guidelines apply:
  • The applied method to obtain data and proof must be reliable, established and accepted in the relevant scientific community.
  • The expert must be sufficiently qualified.
  • The expert must provide reasoning for the applied methods of her/his choice, if so required.
Finally, the court and its expert judges decide whether evidence and conclusions are acceptable or not. However, this judgment on acceptance or rejection is usually based on data, facts, and plausibility.

As a general rule CTI/CTE orders a review of the expert report from at least one expert colleague with recognized reputation.

CTI/CTE (About CTI; Expertise) is part of a small, but international community of experts in exploration and Forensic Geochemistry. The companies are also actively involved in new applications, research, and international conference attendance and -organization.

Laboratories and Business Arrangements

Ordered analytical data or programs are executed either in North-America or Europe. The lab of CTI is specialized on gas geochemistry; all other analyses are farmed out to first-class labs in the centers of the oil industry (Calgary, Denver, Houston, and Los Angeles) or to research facilities in Germany. All these labs conducting raw data generation have an undisputed high reputation. Microbial assessments are usually carried out by the University of Aachen, RWTH, Institute for Microbiology IV (Germany), and/or with EnviroGene (UK).

There are several reasons for the potential farm out of specific analysis to North-America:
  • There are few and limited labs available in Central Europe because of the lack of an oil industry.
  • The applied procedures in Forensic Geochemistry are routine methods in exploration.
  • Cost savings are realized from continuous use of lab equipment as a result of continuous exploration programs; lab efficiency is usually between 70-90%, in contrast to many labs in Central Europe with low sample volumes.
  • Low US and Can $ provide further cost savings.
Services in Europe are accepted, coordinated and responsibly managed by CTE, Germany. In North-America, CTI (Canada) is the responsible project partner, unless otherwise agreed in writing.

Updated: September 2004


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